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2024 Scientific Reports

Multi-site benchmark classification of major depressive disorder using machine learning on cortical and subcortical measures.

Belov V, Erwin-Grabner T, Aghajani M, Aleman A, Amod AR, Basgoze Z, Benedetti F, Besteher B, Bülow R, Ching CRK, Connolly CG, Cullen K, Davey CG, Dima D, Dols A, Evans JW, Fu CHY, Gonul AS, Gotlib IH, Grabe HJ, Groenewold N, Hamilton JP, Harrison BJ, Ho TC, Mwangi B, Jaworska N, Jahanshad N, Klimes-Dougan B, Koopowitz SM, Lancaster T, Li M, Linden DEJ, MacMaster FP, Mehler DMA, Melloni E, Mueller BA, Ojha A, Oudega ML, Penninx BWJH, Poletti S, Pomarol-Clotet E, Portella MJ, Pozzi E, Reneman L, Sacchet MD, Sämann PG, Schrantee A, Sim K, Soares JC, Stein DJ, Thomopoulos SI, Uyar-Demir A, van der Wee NJA, van der Werff SJA, Völzke H, Whittle S, Wittfeld K, Wright MJ, Wu MJ, Yang TT, Zarate C, Veltman DJ, Schmaal L, Thompson PM, Goya-Maldonado R

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Abstract

Machine learning (ML) techniques have gained popularity in the neuroimaging field due to their potential for classifying neuropsychiatric disorders. However, the diagnostic predictive power of the existing algorithms has been limited by small sample sizes, lack of representativeness, data leakage, and/or overfitting. Here, we overcome these limitations with the largest multi-site sample size to date (N = 5365) to provide a generalizable ML classification benchmark of major depressive disorder (MDD) using shallow linear and non-linear models. Leveraging brain measures from standardized ENIGMA analysis pipelines in FreeSurfer, we were able to classify MDD versus healthy controls (HC) with a balanced accuracy of around 62%. But after harmonizing the data, e.g., using ComBat, the balanced accuracy dropped to approximately 52%. Accuracy results close to random chance levels were also observed in stratified groups according to age of onset, antidepressant use, number of episodes and sex. Future studies incorporating higher dimensional brain imaging/phenotype features, and/or using more advanced machine and deep learning methods may yield more encouraging prospects.